外文毕业论文合集12篇

时间:2023-04-21 19:29:25

外文毕业论文

外文毕业论文篇1

由于工作性质的特点,总结与交流教学经验的论文主要是介绍教师尝试的某种新的教学方法或技巧(包括对教材的取舍和调整)的过程和结果,或针对某个问题尝试采用的解决办法。这类论文一般应该包括以下几个部分:

背景介绍:如为什么要尝试某种新的方法?基于什么问题或状况提出的想法?

具体操作过程:如在课堂教学实践中如何运用某种方法;

方法运用的效果:如采用新方法之后教学效果发生的变化;

建议和启事:如果其他教师使用这种新方法时应注意哪些问题。撰写经验总结与交流类论文时要特别注意以下几点:

第一,切忌泛泛而谈。稍不注意,经验总结类的论文容易出现泛泛而谈的现象。这种论文并不介绍具体的某种经验,而是空泛地介绍自己在教学中的一些想法和心得,甚至是一些大家都知道的大道理。

第二,切忌空口说白话。虽然是总结经验,但论文还要讲究论证的说服力。经验总结类论文不一定要求提供系统的数据来验证某个结论,但也不能空口说白话。比如,如果论文认为采用某种方法之后教学效果提高了,那么要适当提供一些具体的材料加以证明。

第三,切忌老生常谈。学术期刊审稿时最忌讳老生常谈的文章,而经验总结类的论文又最容易出现老生常谈的现象。出现这种现象大概有两个主要原因。

外文毕业论文篇2

毕业论文是教学计划的最后一个重要环节,是落实教育培养目标的重要组成部分,其主要目的是培养学生综合运用所学的知识和语言技能,理论联系实际,独立分析和解决有关专业问题的实际能力,使学生得到从事本专业外语学术论文写作的基本训练。毕业论文的基本教学要求是:

1、通过毕业论文提高学生综合运用、扩展语言知识和专业知识的能力,培养学生独立分析问题、解决问题的能力。

2、通过撰写毕业论文,帮助学生接受科学研究、分析方法的初步训练。

3、培养学生正确的写作思想,理论联系实际的工作作风,严肃认真的科学态度。

4、使学生在外文资料查阅、阅读和翻译,语言表达、写作能力,计算机文字处理等基本技能方面得到进一步的训练和提高。

二、毕业论文题目的确定

(一) 方式:

1、由教研室安排教师做“怎样写毕业论文的报告”,详细介绍撰写论文的每一个环节和具体要求。

2、学生在指导教师指定的范围内选择和初步确定论文的方向。

3、由论文指导教师根据教学要求提供论文选题,在教研室汇总后向学生公布,供学生选题参考。

4、学生可根据自己所学专业,按学院所提供各专业论文参考选题确定题目,也可自选题目,必须报指导教师,征得同意后方可开题。原则上学生不得跨专业选题。

(二) 范围

英美语言文学、文化、语言学(语法、词法、修辞、语义、文体等)、翻译、国际商贸、国际商务、旅游、外语教学法等。

三、毕业论文写作要求

1、论文长度不少于3,000英文单词。

2、论文结构包括:

1) 标题 (title)

2) 作者署名 (name of the author and tutor)

3) 摘要 (abstract)(150—200词,中英文均要)

4) 关键词 (key words)(中英文均要)

5) 正文 (body)

6) 参考文献 (bibliography)

3、摘要(Abstract)通常为一个段落,长度不超过300个单词。

Abstract通常要回答如下问题:

(1)What is the general knowledge of your topic in the academic field?

(2)What research topic is the paper to focus on?

(3)What method or material do you use to support your main point of view?

(4)What conclusion will you draw?

(5)What is the main contribution of the paper?

4、关键词(Keywords)3至5个。除专有名词外,其他词不用大写,词与词之

间以分号隔开。

关键词应能反映论文的主要内容,因此常出现在标题与摘要中,多为名词,如用investigation 而不用investigate。

5、引言(Introduction)

6、在引言(Introduction)与结语(Conclusion)之间的正文部分应分若干章节。章节编号方法应采用分级阿拉伯数字编号方法,第一级为“1”、“2”、“3”等,第二级为“2.1”、“2.2”、“2.3”等,第三级为“2.2.1”、“2.2.2”、“2.2.3”等,但分级阿拉伯数字的编号一般不超过四级,两级之间用下角圆点隔开,每一级的末尾不加标点。

各层标题均单独占行书写。第一级标题居中书写;第二级标题序数顶格书写,后空一格接写标题,末尾不加标点;第三级和第四级标题均空两格书写序数,后空一格书写标题。第四级以下单独占行的标题顺序采用A.B.C……和a.b.c.两层,标题均空两格书写序数,后空一格写标题。正文中对总项包括的分项采用⑴、⑵、⑶…单独序号,对分项中的小项采用①、②、③…的序号或数字加半括号,括号后不再加其他标点。

7、如有注释,应为尾注。注释应编号,并置于参考文献之前。

8、参考文献数目不得少于5篇。排列采用以下格式:

1)参考期刊排列顺序为:作者,题目,期刊名称,出版年,卷(期),页码

2)参考专著排列顺序为:作者,书名,出版地,出版社,出版年,页码

9、论文为Word形式打印稿,纸型为A4,单倍行距,英文用Times New Roman

字体,中文用宋体。

10、字号要求:大标题为3号字加黑,小标题为4号字加黑,正文、注释与

参考文献为5号字。

11、论文写作过程中,应自觉主动与指导教师联系,虚心接受教师指导。

12、按要求打印装订并上交。装订顺序为:

1)毕业论文封面

2)扉页(毕业设计/论文任务书)

3)毕业论文指导书

4)目录

5)中文摘要(含关键词)

6)英文摘要(含关键词)

7)正文

8)致谢

9)参考文献

13、进度安排:

1、确定选题 第 1 周 ( 09年 2月 22日前)

2、论文提纲 第 2 周 ( 09年 3月 1日前)

3、完成初稿 第3-5周 ( 09年 3月 22日前)

4、完成定稿 第 6 周 ( 09年 3月 29日前)

5、上交论文 第7周 ( 09年 4月 5日前)

14、注意:

1、目录用Word文档自动生成,用1.5倍行距,4号宋体。

2、中文摘要、英文摘要各占一页,按一级标题标示。

四、上交要求

学生按任务书上规定的时间,以班级为单位交辅导员处,辅导员汇总后上交学院。

中州大学外国语学院

参考样文如下

目 录

中文摘要 1

ABSTRACT 2

1 引言 2

2 企业文化的内涵 3

2.1 文化和企业的定义 3

2.1.1 企业组织的法律形态 3

2.1.2 企业组织的管理形态 4

2.2 企业文化 4

2.3 认识企业文化 5

2.4 企业文化的功能 6

3 企业文化对组织创新的影响 7

3.1 组织创新的内容 7

3.2 企业文化对组织创新的影响 7

3.2.1 影响组织结构创新 7

3.2.2 影响组织流程创新 8

3.2.3 组织制度创新 8

4 结语 9

参考文献 9

致谢 10

摘要

随着经济全球化和知识经济时代的到来,国内企业改革的深入发展, 众多企业对传统的组织结构进行了大胆的创新。同时,人们逐渐认识到企业文化是一个成功企业不可或缺的一部分,是影响企业经营业绩的根本,企业文化决定了企业的竞争地位。本文主要讨论了企业文化对企业组织创新的影响。文中首先给出了企业和文化的定义及其内涵,其次提出了企业文化的内容和主要功能,最后揭示了组织创新的内容,论述了企业文化在组织结构、组织流程、组织制度等三方面对企业组织创新的影响。企业文化与创新相互影响,相互促进,共同对企业的发展产生影响。

关键词:文化;企业文化;组织创新

Abstract(用Time New Roman 字体)

Along with the economic globalization and arrival of knowledge-based economy ages, the thorough development of the local business enterprise reform, numerous business enterprises carried on the innovation of the brave to the traditional organization structure. At the same time, the people know that the corporate culture is a gradually successfully a necessary part of the business enterprise, is a root that affects the business enterprise management accomplishment, the corporate culture comes to a decision the competition position of the business enterprise. This text mainly discusses the corporate culture to organize the creative influence to the business enterprise. Give first in the text definition and its contents of the business enterprise and culture, put forward contents and main functions of corporate culture the next in order, announced to public the creative contents of organization finally, discuss the corporate culture to organize the creative influence to the business enterprise in the aspects of organizing the structure, organize process, organize system wait third. The corporate culture and innovation affects mutually, promoting mutually, common to the development creation influence of the business enterprise.

Key Words: culture,corporate culture,System innovation

1 引言

不管您意识到与否,文化每时每刻都在对政治、经济、社会、生活产生着潜在的影响,发挥着不可忽视的作用。本文通过对企业文化的基本内涵、企业文化的重要性以及企业文化的影响,试图让人们认知、认识企业文化。让人们明确,只有继承和发扬中华民族的优秀传统文化,吸收和借鉴人类先进文化,才能建立起优秀的中国企业文化,重视企业文化的影响,据此才能建立起比较完善的社会主义市场经济体制,实现兴企、富民、强国的目标。

2 企业文化的内涵

2.1 文化和企业的定义

文化,从广义上说,是人类在社会实践过程中获得的物质、精神的生产力和创造的物质、精神的总和。从狭义上讲,是指人类精神生产力和精神产品,包括一切社会意识形式:如自然科学、技术科学和社会意识形态等。作为一种历史现象,文化的发展有历史继承性;作为社会意识形态,文化是一定社会政治和经济的反映,同时又对一定社会的政治和经济产生巨大的影响。

作为经济组织实体的企业,为了实现其以行政组织手段替代市场交易来协调生产的功能,就需要有一定的组织形态。

一般地说,企业组织形态包括两个相互关联的方面,其一是企业组织的法律形态,其二是企业组织的管理形态。

2.1.1 企业组织的法律形态

在企业的长期发展过程中企业组织逐步形成三种主要的法律形态,这就是业主制企业,合伙制企业和公司制企业,这种界定的依据是法律认可的企业产权制度,感情。。。。。。

(以下略)

4 结语

二十一世纪,一个最响亮的词语就是创新。创新已成为社会发展、经济增长的最关键动力,而企业文化又与创新有着紧密的联系,所以,企业若要获得长足的发展就必须将企业文化与创新思想相融合,发展现今社会所需要的企业文化,并促进企业文化的建设,同时不断地进行组织创新、技术创新,使企业文化与创新协调发展,相互促进。

致谢

本论文得以完成,首先应该感谢。。。老师。正是她在本论文的写作过程中的悉心指导、热情鼓励,在繁忙的工作中抽出时间来为我修改论文,我才能顺利完成我的双学位论文。

作为中州大学的一名毕业生,我更要感谢管理工程系给了我能够学习不同学科知识的机会。在两年的工商管理专业学习过程中,任课老师们的学识渊博、治学严谨、人品高尚无时不在影响着我。学习的时间是短暂的,但老师们的影响却是我终生收益不尽的。在此对我的老师们深表感谢!

在论文写作过程中,我的一些同学、朋友也给了我巨大的帮助与鼓励。在此一并感谢!

在我的成长、学习过程中,能够在大学阶段同时学习到工科、管理两个学科的知识,是我一生的荣幸与财富。我相信,在未来的日子里我会更加努力学习,充分利用所学知识,回报社会、师长。

参考文献

[1] 罗仲伟.托起辉煌.广州:广东旅游出版社,1997年

[2] 埃德加•沙因.企业文化与领导.北京:中国友谊出版公司,1989年

[3] 威廉•道芬内斯,科林•L•普赖斯.21世纪CEO的经营历理念.北京:华夏出版社,1998年

[4] 杰克琳•谢瑞顿,詹姆斯•L•斯特恩.企业文化:排除企业成功的潜在障碍.上海:上海人民出版社,1998年

[5] 艾伦•迪尔,阿伦肯•尼迪.企业文化.北京:三联书店,1989年

[6] 埃尔文格•罗赫拉.企业组织.北京:经济管理出版社1991年

[7] 窦立夫.论组织效率变革策略 (科学学研究),1995(2)

[8] 连燕华.企业组织创新的案例研究.科学学研究),1992(2)

[9] 梁镇,赵国杰.企业管理创新.北京:中国经济出版社,1996年

[10] 林毅夫等.现代企业制度的内涵与国有企业改革方向.经济研究,1997(3)

[11] P F•德鲁克.创新与组织.中外科技政策与管理,1995(12)

[12] 许庆瑞.技术创新管理. 杭州:浙江大学出版社,1990年

[13] 颜光桐,刘正周等.企业再造.上海:上海财经大学出版社,1998

[14] 周振华. 企业改制.上海:上海人民出版社,1996年

外文毕业论文篇3

我来自外语系2003级(2)班,我叫杨函祥,我的论文题目是《李阳疯狂英语与中学英语口语教学》,本篇论文是在凌红波讲师的指导完成的。在此,我十分感谢她长期以来对我的精心指导和大力帮助,同时也感谢各位评审老师从百忙之中抽出宝贵的时间事一同参与对我这篇论文的审阅并出席本次答辩,以下是本篇论文的选题缘由、目的,资料收集准备工作以及文章结构。

一、选题缘由、目的

爱好英语的人都知道,李阳,疯狂英语的创始人,以自己不懈的追求和不断努力奋斗,演绎了精彩的人生传奇。十多年来,他凭着自己成功的经验和一口地道的美式英语,在全国各地近百所高校进行疯狂讲学,掀起一股股疯狂英语的学习热潮,把中国人学习英语的激情推向了最高潮。通过自己对李阳疯狂英语的学习,的确发觉有许多有助于英语学习的优点值得借鉴,再结合自己的成长经历和实际考察,我发现贵州少数民族偏远山区中学生英语基础普遍偏差,尤其是口语表达能力比较差。基于这一情况,进行分析,我大胆地推崇李阳疯狂英语的优势,有效地进行中学英语教学辅助,并以此列提纲,进行展开。

二、资料收集准备工作

自2006年下旬选定题目后,为了完成论文,本人进行了大量的资料收集,有来自网上的论文期刊,图书馆的书目,最主要是来自于李阳疯狂英语的学习教材。在凌红波老师的指导下,经过阅读资料,拟定提纲,调研,写开题报告初稿、定稿,毕业论文初稿、修改等一系列程序,于2007年3月正式定稿。

三、论文的结构

全文总共分为五个部分,约9000字:

第一部分是引言,该部分主要结合了贵州少数民族偏远山区中学生英语基础普遍偏差,尤其是口语表达能力相对较差这一情况,提出自己的看法,主张推崇李阳英语,把李阳疯狂英语的特点和优势与中学英语口语教学有效地结合起来,从而全面提高贵州偏远山区中学生的整体英语水平。

第二部分重点介绍了李阳疯狂英语的特点及优势。其点包括以下几个方面:1、办班灵活,注重课堂互动;2、学习过程由简单到复杂,由短句到长句,由句子到篇章,朗读速度由慢到快,同时训练方式也叫为独特;3、各种场合讲话善于借助身体语言,使语言与动作相结合,更形象化;4、训练句型非正规性(Damnit!Watchyourmonth)、幽默性、中成英表、鼓励性(Nopain,nogain)等。而优势则包含六个方面:1、大声读,在读中克服羞怯;2、大声拼,在拼中学会记忆;3、大声唱,在唱中找到乐趣;4、大声说,在说中找到自信;5、重视非智力因素的培养。也就是指注重对学生学习激情的激发,而把学习英语与人生奋斗相联系起来。如:“一分耕耘,一分收获”“学习英语没有什么了不起!攻克英语,小菜一碟!”“打击我吧!迫害我吧!主我成为真正的人!”等;6、教材更符合生活实际。教学内容多取自欧美国家的实际生活的情景,而且口语强调地道,实用(如:Iseverythingundercontrol?一切都在掌握之中吗?Givemeafavor!帮我一把吧!)。

第三部分介绍了贵州地区中学生英语水平普遍偏差的原因。总共概括为以下六个方面:1、缺乏有利于外语教学的社会大环境;2、教育体制的弊端;3、现代化教学设备不齐全;4、学生自身的内在因素;5、教师自身素质的影响和教学传统观念的干扰;6、地方方言的干扰等。也正是以上一系列不利因素的存在,使得贵州落后山区中学英语教学成效较低。

外文毕业论文篇4

专 业:

指导教师:

年 月 日

开题报告填写要求

1.开题报告作为毕业设计(论文)答辩委员会对学生答辩资格审查的依据材料之一.此报告应在指导教师指导下,由学生在毕业设计(论文)工作前期内完成,经指导教师签署意见审查后生效.

2.开题报告内容必须用黑墨水笔工整书写,或按系统一设计的电子文档标准格式打印(外语系网页),禁止打印在其它纸上后剪贴,完成后应及时交给指导教师签署意见.

3.学生查阅资料的参考文献应在5篇及以上(不包括辞典,手册),开题报告的字数要在1000字以上.

4.有关年月日等日期的填写,应当按照国标GB/T 7408—94《数据元和交换格式,信息交换,日期和时间表示法》规定的要求,一律用阿拉伯数字书写.如"2004年9月26日"或"2004-09-26".

毕 业 论 文 开 题 报 告

1.本课题的研究意义

2.本课题的基本内容

毕 业 论 文 开 题 报 告

3.本课题的重点和难点

4.论文提纲

毕 业 论 文 开 题 报 告

5.参考文献

6.研究进度

毕 业 论 文 开 题 报 告

指导教师意见:

(对本课题的深度,广度及工作量的意见)

指导教师:

年 月 日

外文毕业论文篇5

中图分类号:T P391.6 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1674-098X(2013)01(c)-0196-01

高校大学生毕业设计(论文)工作,是学生在完成全部专业课程学习之后,结合毕业实习,进行的最后一个综合性实践教学活动,是高校实现本科培养目标的重要教学环节,对提高学生运用所学知识发现问题、分析问题和解决问题的能力、科学研究能力、创新能力、动手能力以及专业技术素质与水平,具有重要的意义。高校扩招后,毕业学生数量剧增,高校专业教师指导大学生毕业设计(论文)工作压力增大,指导学生人数和工作量成倍增加,而高校自身教育教学资源的发展,远远满足不了扩招后对学生培养的需求,如专业教师数量与水平、教师科研项目数量与经费、科研仪器设备数量与质量、专业实验室数量与面积,等等,很难满足对学生培养的需求,导致高校毕业设计(论文)质量呈下降趋势。因此,高校充分利用校外教育教学资源,将部分学生送出校外,在校外企事业科研单位进行毕业设计(论文)工作,可以缓解高校教育资源的不足,大幅度提高大学生毕业设计(论文)质量。为此,武汉工程大学生物技术专业和生物工程专业,近10年来,进行了充分利用校外教育教学资源,提高生物大学生毕业设计(论文)质量的探索与实践,取得了较好的效果。有关工作,另文报道。为了充分利用校外资源为高校人才培养服务,提高本科毕业设计(论文)质量,充分认识大学生校外毕业设计(论文)工作的理论价值与实际意义,现将高校利用校外教育教学资源,开展校外毕业设计(论文)工作的价值与意义作如下探讨,以期为高校提高本科毕业设计(论文)质量提供参考。

1 利用校外教育资源,开展产学研合作教育,是高等教育发展的迫切需要和时代要求

国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020)指出:要充分调动全社会关心支持教育的积极性,共同担负起培养下一代的责任,为青少年健康成长创造良好环境;要创新高校与科研院所、行业、企业联合培养人才的机制;要促进高校、科研院所、企业科技教育资源共享,推动高校创新组织模式,培育跨学科、跨领域的科研与教学相结合的团队。因此,高等学校充分利用校外教育资源,开展产学研合作教育,是高等教育发展的迫切需要和时代的要求。高校毕业设计(论文)工作,是人才培养的一个重要环节,开展校外毕业设计(论文)工作,与校外科研院所、企事业单位联合指导大学生毕业设计(论文),是产学研合作教育的重要途径和方式之一,对高校人才培养质量提高教育重要的实践意义。

2 开展校外毕业设计(论文)工作,可以弥补校内教育资源的不足,提高毕业设计(论文)的质量

高校扩招后,由于高校在师资、场地、资金、固定资产、设备、图书等诸多方面的教育资源的限制,影响了人才培养质量,人才培养质量呈下降趋势是不争的事实。虽然我国高校之间教育资源存在一定的差异,甚至有较大的差异,但是,任何一所高校仅仅依靠自身校内教育资源,是不能培养出社会所需要的高质量合格人才的。高校校内教育资源是有限的,而校外的社会资源是无限的。因此,高校应该充分利用校内和校外两种教育资源为人才培养服务。充分利用校外教育资源,可以弥补校内教育资源的不足,提高人才培养质量。高校毕业设计(论文)工作,除了大部分学生在校内完成毕业设计(论文)工作外,将部分学生送出校外,在校外企事业科研单位,进行联合,培养完成毕业设计(论文)工作,一方面,可以减少校内专业教师指导学生毕业设计(论文)的人数,降低工作压力,提高校内毕业论文质量;另一方面,部分学生在校外进行毕业设计(论文),结合校外单位科研、生产和应用的实际选题,真题真做,研究工作条件、环境和经费有充分保障,研究结果对所在单位具有一定的科学价值和应用价值,校外单位满意,达到了互利双赢的效果,这样,可以显著提高校外大学生毕业论文质量。

3 开展校外毕业设计(论文)工作,可以大幅度提高大学生科研创新能力和综合素质

外文毕业论文篇6

 

19世纪中叶,西方近代地质学传入中国,少数外国地质学者开启了我国地质调查工作,中国却没有设立自己的地质机构。1912年1月,孙中山在南京组建临时政府,当时在实业部矿务司下设立了地质科,成为我国第一个正式的地质工作机构。1913年2月,实业部矿务司地质科改为工商部矿务司地质科,同年6月,地质科改为地质调查所和地质研究所毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,职责是既培养地质人才、研究人员和学生,又从事地质调查工作。

1922年1月27日,中国地质工作者成立中国地质学会,1923年我国第一个地方办的地质调查所――河南省地质调查所成立。以后,中央的地质调查所和地质研究所又曾隶属实业部、经济部。1928年地质研究所归入中央研究院。抗日战争期间,1940年前后,经济部设西南矿产勘测处和矿冶研究所。湖南、福建、广东、广西、江西、四川、西康等也先后设立了省级地质调查所。

以上是解放前,我国地质工作的概况和机构设置情况免费论文下载论文的格式。这时中国的矿产勘查取得了一定的成果,但总体上仍较薄弱。由于旧中国的经济社会发展水平低下,地质工作和矿产勘查工作发展缓慢,到新中国成立前37年,累计钻探进尺仅17万米,探明储量的矿产只有18种。另外,解放前地质工作者也发现了一些矿产基地,特别是延安的延长石油的勘查与开发,边区政府作出了重要贡献。尽管矿产勘查工作取得了一定成绩,但由于旧中国政治、经济、社会落后,矿产勘查工作受到了约束。

相比而言,国外的地质矿产勘查与开发工作取得了飞速的发展,各项事业成效显著毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,而且法律法规也较为完善、成熟。由于地质矿产勘查与开发行业是发现和利用位于地表或地下的石油天然气等递耗性矿产资源的行业,该行业具有高风险、长跨度、资金密集、会计业务复杂等特点,这些特点主要体现在其上游活动,即勘探、开发、开采直到矿区废弃的活动。而其中的会计业务作为行业的基础除要考虑会计的专业性外,还应考虑地质矿产的高风险、资源稀缺性、收益波动性、开发专业性和行业高危性等特点。因此该行业的会计业务便显得尤为重要。鉴于矿产资源勘查开发行业的上述特点,国际上许多国家都制定了各自的石油天然气等采掘行业会计准则或相关指南。

美国是国际上最早对地质矿产勘查开发中会计问题进行研究的国家,其研究的成果也较为成熟、系统和深入,相关会计准则的制定也最早、较完善,对世界其他国家和地区的地质勘探行为中会计制度的制定以及相关准则的产生,有巨大而深远的影响作用。

早在20世纪初,美国就开始了对地质矿产勘查开发行业会计问题进行研究,但当时的研究范围还仅限于流体矿产资源开发会计――石油天然气会计的一些具体操作性问题,其研究的主要内容是以历史成本为基础的成果法 (Successfuleffortsmethod,简称SE)和完全成本法 (FullCostmethod,简称FC)的运用方式和使用范围的选择。60年代末,美国注册会计师协会(AICPA)了第11号《会计研究报告》(ARSNO.11),建议基本上支持成果法。70年代初,AICPA下属的会计原则委员会(APB)了题为“石油工业会计报告实务”的专题报告,也基本支持成果法。直到以FASB于1975年的第9号财务会计准则公告(StatementsofFinaneialAeeountingstandards,简称SFAS)《所得税会计―石油和天然气生产公司(对APB第11号和第23号意见书的修正)》为标志。美国财务会计准则委员会(FASB)于20世纪70至90年代毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,先后了六份与石油天然气会计有关的《财务会计公告》,其中最重要的两份准则,一是1977年12月的 SFASNo.19“石油天然气生产公司的财务会计与报告”,二是1982年的SFASNO.69“有关石油天然气生产活动的揭示”。

澳大利亚没有单独的地质勘探会计准则,但存在着管制采掘行业和石油天然气行业的联合准则。1989年澳大利亚会计准则理事会(AustralianAeeountingstandardsBoard)了《澳大利亚会计准则第1022号――采掘行业会计》和《澳大利亚会计准则第7号――采掘行业会计》,都称为《采掘行业会计》,且在技术上十分一致,不过,前者应用于公司企业,而后者应用于非公司报告主体。其主要涉及勘探开发成本的确认、计量、废弃成本的处置、摊销和收入确认等免费论文下载论文的格式。2004年,澳大利亚会计准则理事会为了使其准则与IFRS6趋同,在认SBIFRS6的同时也了与IFRS6对等的《澳大利亚会计准则第6号――矿产资源的勘探与评价》,取代了《澳大利亚会计准则第1022号――采掘行业会计》,但保留了澳大利亚采掘行业会计原有的一些特色。

加拿大没有一个独立的地质勘探行业上游活动会计准则。但是,1988年加拿大特许会计师协会(CICA)了一份可以看作是地质勘探行业会计指南的研究报告――《小型矿业公司(JimiorMiningcompanies)的财务会计与报告》,论述了小型矿业公司的财务会计与报告问题,主要涉及了矿产的资源勘探,而较少涉及开发。研究报告探讨了勘探和开发成本的资本化问题、矿产权益部分销售的利得和损失的确认问题、矿产权益的取得、矿产权益的放弃和销售、披露以及管理费用和股份发行成本等。1990年加拿大特许会计师协会(CICA)了名为“石油天然气行业完全成本会计”,主要涉及完全成本法在石油天然气勘探、开发和开采活动中的应用以及“油气资产”折旧、减值和转让利得、损失的确认等问题。

英国的石油天然气会计实务尽管受美国的影响较大,但亦有自己的特色。2001年6月7日由OLAC了一个实务建议公告《石油天然气勘探、开发、生产和废弃活动会计》毕业论文ppt毕业论文模板,该公告取代了1956年至1995年间的四个相关建议实务公告,目的是在英国一般公认会计原则框架下增进从事石油天然气勘探、开发与生产活动的公司财务报告的一致性。公告认为,全部成本法和成果法都是可接受的方法,并规定了两种方法下费用资本化的原则和上限减值测试的要求,还对风险分担协议、石油天然气开采活动、清理与废弃和其他权益变动等方面的会计处理,以及财务报表列报和披露作了规定。

从以上发达国家地质勘探行业中会计制度的制定,可以为我国相关行业会计制度提供借鉴,制定一份统一的地质矿产勘查开发行业会计准则是有必要的。该准则可采用历史成本原则下的成果法对勘探成本进行会计处理,而不是以估计的矿产资源资产价值为基础;充分考虑生产前成本的费用化或资本化;与矿物相关的成本的资本化与折旧;管理成本在不同经营阶段的归属;矿产资源资产资本化成本的折旧应使用产量单位法计提;矿产资源资产资本化成本的减值测试;矿物成本的确认与计量;动态销售收入如何确认等因素,充分考虑地质矿产行业的专业因素和行业经济因素,为行业发展提供科学、合理的会计准则。

参考文献:

[1]程江涛,司竹君.国土资源大调查中的地质调查项目的预算编制与会计核算.山东地质,2003(1).

[2]王忠海.采掘行业上游活动会计准则问题研究.东北林业大学学位论文.2007.

[3]董杰.中国工业遗产保护及其非物质成分分析.内蒙古师范大学学报(自然科学版),2009(4).

外文毕业论文篇7

全球贸易现已摆脱东亚金融危机的影响加速上行,贸易增长快于生产增长的势头将持续下去。未来5—10年,国际贸易增速将高于20世纪90年代的6.5%,保持在7%左右。据世贸组织预测,全球贸易总额(包括货物贸易和服务贸易)将由1999年的6.8万亿美元增至2010年的17万亿美元。全球贸易额与总产值之比将从1999年的23%提高到28%,贸易对经济增长的拉动作用愈加凸显。在规模生产和技术改进的作用下,国际市场上大多数商品的价格将走稳走低。

虽然全球经济增速放缓的可能性增加,但未来几年国际贸易增幅仍可保持较为平稳的增长态势,其主要原因是:世界经济处于上升期,使得国际市场供给充足、需求旺盛;科技革命和电子商务大发展,为贸易增长提供了后劲;贸易自由化深入开展,越来越多的国家实行市场开放战略。

国际贸易结构走向高级化。贸易结构的高级化是与产业结构的升级互为表里的,从其变化趋势看有三个突出特点。一是传统初级产品比重下降,工业制成品比重持续上升。二是高新技术产品出口高速增长。三是现代服务贸易迅猛发展。目前服务贸易已占到全球贸易总额的20%,其中知识含量高的服务业发展最快。整个20世纪90年代,在三大类服务贸易中,商业服务年均增长达9%,快于运输业的4%和旅游业的6%,未来几年这种增长态势仍将保持下去。

(二)国际直接投资越来越成为国际贸易的主要推动力量

上世纪90年代以来世界经济的一个重要特点,就是国际贸易增长超过生产的增长,而国际直接投资的增长又超过国际贸易的增长。东亚金融危机过后,这一势头重新显露。

与资本流动相对应,跨国公司的全球化经营已成为国际贸易的重要内容。由于跨国公司在全球布局,实行大规模的产业内平行分工和“内部贸易”在很大程度上“创造”并壮大了国际贸易。从数量关系来看,单位国际贸易额对国内GDP增长的贡献率在下降。这就对各国提出了两个要求,一是全方位进入国际经济舞台,不能为贸易而贸易,二是注意贸易的质量,切实增强贸易对经济增长的拉动作用。

(三)电子商务引导国际贸易新潮流

近年来互联网应用范围极度扩张,为国际贸易带来深刻变化。这种变化不但体现在贸易的实现形式上,也影响到贸易的实质内容和发展观念。电子商务实现了贸易的网络化、无边界化和个性化,能有效打破自然和人为限制,具有营运成本低、用户范围广、互动交流性强等特点,代表着21世纪国际贸易的发展方向。电子商务的兴起孕育着巨大商机。据联合国的报告统计,2000年全球电子商务交易额达3770亿美元,并将以倍增速度发展,到2010年将占到世界贸易的1/3。发展电子商务对各国的重要性,不仅在于能否在新兴领域分得一杯羹,更在于已有的市场份额能否保得住。所以,各主要贸易大国对电子商务都给予了高度重视。

互联网的出现以及电子商务的蓬勃发展,极大地促进了全球一体化进程,这对向来苦于信息不足的发展中国家较为有利。同时,电子商务对国际贸易也提出了更高要求。如通讯技术的普及应用,税收和金融体制的调整,原有基础服务设施的改造,以及建立全面竞争的开放性经济体制。当前世界各国对网络经济的触及程度严重不平等,美国现在有30%的人上网,而发展中国家总体的上网比例只有0.6%。在电子商务提供的巨大空间面前,那些不能有效利用互联网的国家将处于落后的地位。

(四)国际贸易格局稳中有变

美、欧、日仍是全球三大贸易力量,它们间的力量消长直接影响着国际贸易的总体格局。目前美欧日在全球贸易总额中的比重达到60%,其中美进出口均居全球第一,进口占市场总额近二成,在很大程度上支撑着世界出口市场,未来几年美在国际贸易中的霸主地位不会动摇。从近期看,美经济能否实现“软着陆”,日本的体制改革进展如何以及欧盟能否顺利完成“纳新”任务并稳定欧元,将是影响三方进一步发展的关键。发展中国家贸易比重近年来虽有所上升,但南北差距依然巨大。而且发展中国家的贸易内涵和质量并不乐观,它们从贸易增长中获得的实惠不多。整个20世纪90年展中国家的人均所得增长速度只有发达国家的一半。即使今后石油出口国的贸易大幅增加,其“石油收入”的大部分也只是用来弥补历年积累的财政和贸易赤字。中低档的出口结构使发展中国家饱受国际市场波动的影响,致使贸易竞争力下降,取得同样的出口收益要动员国内更多的资源,从而陷入“贫困性出口增长”的怪圈。除一些新兴市场国家在国际贸易中具有一定的竞争力外,多数发展中国家在总体上仍将处于不利地位。

当前国际贸易领域面临的问题

(一)WTO新一轮谈判充满矛盾和斗争

新回合谈判将为21世纪国际多边贸易体制确定新的“游戏规则”,是影响国际贸易走向的重头戏,谈判中的斗争也将空前激烈。谈判分歧点多而复杂。

一是在农产品领域,美国和欧盟互不相让。美国和农产品出口国凯恩斯集团组成统一战线,主张取消农业补贴,放松对生物技术产品市场准入的限制。欧盟联合日、韩等国,指责美国为占领市场滥用出口信贷和“隐蔽补贴”,并坚持禁止进口美国的激素牛肉和转基因食品。发展中国家普遍对发达国家的农业补贴(注:据世贸组织统计,2000年经合组织农业补贴总额达3000亿美元。)不满,强烈要求它们开放市场,取消各种非关税壁垒。

二是在市场开放的范围和力度上,各方意见相左。美国主张对“第二批信息技术产品”和电子商务实行免税,开放电信、金融等服务贸易领域,降低化工、医疗器械等重要制成品的关税。欧盟与美立场基本一致,但对视听产品市场严加保护,以保持自己的“文化特性”。发展中国家主要关注农产品和纺织品市场开放,强调现有的贸易自由化措施要落到实处,特别是对发展中国家的优惠规定要到位。

三是在贸易规则的制定上,发达国家与发展中国家有严重分歧。发达国家的关注点已从“边界线”上转移到“边界内”,要求对各国的投资体制、竞争政策等国内政策领域加以调整和限制。目前规则之争的焦点是美国试图把劳工和环境标准加进谈判议题,甚至提出使用制裁手段,发展中国家一致反对,认为此举的实质是削弱其劳动力比较优势。

各方利益难以协调。面对权益的再分配,有关各方宁可拖延谈判,也不愿自己受损。在乌拉圭回合多边谈判中,美、欧等发达国家成为最大的受益方。虽然进口关税有所下降,但是发达国家的新兴产业、服务贸易的出口以及市场绝对规模都扩大了。但是,发达国家对发展中国家的承诺有很多并未兑现。面对新一轮谈判,发达国家尤其是美国谋求继续主导国际贸易规则的制定,而发展中国家要求平等参与谈判,以维护自己的切身利益,各方意见僵持,使多边谈判继西雅图会议失败后迟迟不能启动。从力量对比看,新一轮多边谈判的主动权还是掌握在发达国家手中。发达国家只有切实放开本国市场,并使WTO的规则明确化,才能取信于发展中国家,使国际贸易体系能够维系并发展下去。目前各方都在就新一轮谈判积极筹划,但真正启动谈判将很艰难,所需时间很可能会超过预期,近期内难有实质性动作。

(二)全方位的市场争夺战日趋激烈

国际贸易领域已经成为各国进行竞争的最前线,并成为国家竞争力的重要表现形式。能否在国际市场上实现价值已成为衡量一国经济发展水平和政策效果的重要标准,而近年来蓬勃兴起的服务贸易更是直接为本国创造价值。为此,美、欧、日等国都从国家经济安全的角度制定本国的贸易战略,投资、金融、生产、服务等体制和政策无不围绕着贸易来展开,同时国际斗争的焦点日益扩大,投资、知识产权、竞争政策等领域都成为竞争热点。从效果看,国际资本大量流入,进出口贸易同步增长,服务贸易迅猛发展,这种大进大出的整体贸易格局使发达国家充分吸收了经济全球化的积极面。

各贸易大国努力扩大自己的世界市场份额。美国在20世纪90年代初期提出的国家出口战略和新兴市场战略已经初见成效,成为“新经济”增长周期的最大赢家。美国一直以贸易自由化的领导者自居,企图打破各个区域性协定的优惠政策界限,以达到“利益均沾”、为自己建立全球性市场的目的。欧盟在集中力量进行内部整合,同时加紧执行东扩和南下战略,并通过欧亚会议和欧盟—拉美会议等渠道试图挤进东亚和拉美市场,最近又提出对最不发达国家“除武器以外的一切商品”出口在关税和配额上给予优惠,借以开拓非洲和南亚市场。日本的重点则由多边转入区域合作,全力经营东亚地区,同时加强与新加坡等国的双边关系。

不同发展层次国家间的区域与双边联系日趋频繁,与贸易大国形成明显的竞争态势。一些在多边谈判中引起争论的议题,往往在双边谈判中较容易形成突破。发展中国家重点加强区域合作,联合自强,组成多个区域性贸易集团,像东盟、南方共同市场等已成为本地区贸易自由化的“排头兵”。

(三)贸易保护主义层出不穷

发达国家仍以高关税和配额对进口设限。目前高关税主要集中在农业、粮食产品和服装等发展中国家具有比较优势的出口产品上,如肉类、糖、牛奶等的关税税率往往超过100%,欧盟对超出限额的香蕉征收180%的关税。现在乌拉圭回合规定的取消纺织品配额的10年期限已过去大半,但美国在全部750种配额中只取消了13种。

新贸易保护主义花样迭出。发达国家设置了许多技术出口限制,如美国把计算机产品的出口国分为4类,对第4类“无赖国家”完全禁运,对包括中国在内的第3类国家实行许可证限制。欧盟以“绿色指标”对进口产品设置贸易壁垒,美近来大力推销劳工标准。据估计,各种形式的贸易保护主义给发展中国家造成的外贸损失每年达1000亿美元,相当于发达国家每年给发展中国家官方援助额的两倍。(注:世界贸易组织:《2001年全球经济展望与发展中国家》)在恶劣的国际环境中,一些原本依靠出口已经脱贫的发展中国家甚至又出现“返贫”的现象。此外,在区域化和双边协议中,参与方互相给以优惠,有可能产生变相的保护主义。目前各区域贸易协议的标准和规则差异很大,这种差异可能会取代关税成为全球化进程的最大障碍。

我国外经贸战略的调整

随着国际贸易环境的变化,我国一方面要进行贸易结构的升级,另一方面,还要在加入WTO后对贸易体制加以全面革新。为此,我国既要全力保持贸易的增长势头,又要有新的应对策略。

(一)积极面对WTO的机遇与挑战

WTO的规则不是直接面对企业而是面对政府,但要以市场化来作为导向。为此应处理好三个层次的关系。

坚决执行WTO明确规定的原则性条款。我国现存外商投资方面的法规共有200多项,对必须做出的法律调整要统一步调、按时到位;电讯、金融、保险、证券、旅游、商业、法律会计咨询等服务业领域都要对外资开放,并逐步取消在流通业的分销权和持股比例限制;要加强对知识产权的保护;对外资企业要实施国民待遇,不能再对其提出外汇平衡、国内采购、面向出口等要求;要提高行政方面的透明度。

充分利用WTO现有体制内的保护措施。包括反倾销、反补贴、保护幼稚产业、特别保护条款等体制内的斗争手段,如对一些小型产业以及落后地区的补贴就是国际上认可的做法;在农业领域,WTO将政府扶持措施分为“黄色”、“绿色”等,我国在“黄色”尤其是“绿色”政策措施领域大有可为。

在WTO近年来开拓的服务贸易等新兴领域,要大踏步前进,以充分利用多边谈判已经取得的成果。

应当看到,加入WTO只是为我国经济发展创造了必要的国际和国内的体制条件,我国经济能否顺利完成向现代化、知识化、集约化的转变,最终实现向发达国家的赶超,才是真正的实际任务,也是要面对的真正挑战。在评价加入WTO的影响时,一定要把这方面的积极意义估计足。在国际竞争如此激烈的形势下,只有经济体制高效运转,产业结构竞争力增强,并且具备可持续发展的能力,才能取得真正的、持久的经济安全。

(二)提升我国国际贸易结构的档次

从国际竞争的现实情况看,像过去那样简单地把出口部门分为初级产品和工业制成品已经不够。如在近年来发展较快的信息技术产业,计算机配件制造等环节已经逐渐沦为附加值不高的一般性技术,发展空间只能尽力维持而无扩展余地。只有发展芯片等较为高级的产业内环节,才有可能占领未来市场。东南亚金融危机在产业和贸易层面上的原因,就是多年来依赖的信息技术中低档产品出口增幅下降,导致出口创汇减少,进而使得金融体制在国内外资金外流的冲击下崩溃。有鉴于此,我国应在制成品贸易比重有所上升的基础上,注意在对外经贸工作中质和量的结合。为有目的、有步骤地实现出口产品的升级,我国应进一步细化市场分类,高附加值的产业和环节应是今后对外贸易发展的方向。

(三)实行外贸经营方式的独立化、产业化

凭借多边、稳定、无条件的最惠国待遇,全面提高利用国内外两种资源和两个市场的能力,参与国际经济的大循环,以面向世界和国际化的视野制定发展战略,这是中国加入WTO的应有之义。在加入WTO和社会主义市场经济体制基本建立的国内外条件下,产业化经营是中国外贸独立存在和发展的必然选择。中国应从吸收外资、对外承包工程和劳务合作、境外加工贸易以至参与资本市场运作等各个渠道完善外贸的产业化经营;同时鼓励国内具有竞争优势的企业到境外特别是发展中国家投资办厂,合作开发国内稀缺的资源;充分利用我国内市场容量大、层次多的先天优势,建立起适合中国国情的外贸产业结构。

(四)实行外贸主体结构和市场结构的多元化

外贸企业实现多种所有制共同发展。加入WTO应是中国参与世界经济大循环的全民总动员,民间经贸力量能否以符合国际规范的经营方式发展壮大,这是衡量中国战略是否成功的重要标准。近期中国已做出一些有益尝试,如放宽私营企业进出口权的申请条件,建立金融支持机制,为中小企业出口提供信用担保、信息咨询以及人员培训等服务;加入WTO后还要根据实际效果不断加以调整和完善,目标是建立起全面的出口促进体系,以适应当前国际上对“整体贸易”的战略要求。

外文毕业论文篇8

选题的背景:

目前的国际动漫产业, 欧、美、日、韩呈争先态势。动漫产业是英国的第一大产业, 占GDP 的7.9%;美国网络游戏的产值已经连续4年超过好莱坞电影业, 成为全美最大的娱乐产业。日本游戏市场每年创造着2万亿日元市值规模, 日本动画业年产值在国民经济中占第六位, 动画产品出口值远远高于钢铁。

虽然,我国发展动漫起步较早,从上世纪20 年代开始制作动画,特别是新中国成立后至改革开放前陆续创作了数个在世界上有一定影响的作品。但是,实行社会主义市场经济后,原有的动画制作体制、表现形式、动画创意、制作技术、营销方式,不能适应市场化和国际化条件下动漫产业发展的需要,我国的动画制作一度停滞,更难谈到动漫产品走出国门。

改革开放以来, 杭州的经济社会持续快速健康发展, 动漫产业被视为21 世纪创意经济中最有希望的朝阳产业之一, 因此杭州市委市政府提出了“和谐创业”的口号, 倡导大力发展“创意产业、休闲产业”等现代服务业。经过近几年的快速发展, 杭州的动漫产业已在全国确立了领先的地位。2004 年12 月, 杭州高新区被批准设立国家动画产业基地, 中国美术学院被批准为国家动画教学研究基地, 杭州也成为国内唯一一个拥有两大基地的城市。从2004 年到现在, 杭州又相继成功举办了“首届杭州国际动漫嘉年华”、“杭州市首届卡通动漫节”、“2004 杭州首届国际动漫交流展”等大型动漫展览及第一、二、三、四届中国国际动漫节。杭州市由此开始了“打造动漫之都”的发展之路。

选题的意义:

动漫产业被誉为“无烟的朝阳产业”,在经济全球化的广阔背景下,动漫国际贸易成为动画产业经营模式的重要组成部分。杭州动漫产业虽然在近几年获得了较快的发展,但是与欧、美、日、韩动漫大国来说竞争力仍显不足。

因此,本文将结合杭州动漫产业的本土优势,针对动漫产业存在的不足之处,对提高杭州动漫产业对外贸易的出口竞争力进行研究。为杭州动漫产业的发展提供有益的参考。

研究目标:

本文将通过分析中国动漫产业的现状,结合杭州动漫产业发展的本土优势,针对杭州动漫产品出口存在的问题,分析如何提高杭州动漫产业的竞争力以及动漫产品的出口对策。

主要内容:

引言

一、杭州动漫产业对外贸易现状

二、杭州动漫产业对外贸易发展的有利因素

(一)政府的鼓励政策

(二)人才方面努力形成了集聚优势

(三)“动漫节”的推动作用

(四)杭州动漫产业与城市旅游互动关系

三、杭州动漫产品出口面临的问题

(一)出口产业链的不完整

(二)动漫基地过多过滥,没有实现产业聚集

(三)缺乏出口龙头骨干企业

(四)动漫原创力不够

(五)目标市场定位不准确

四、提升杭州动漫产品出口的对策

(一)构建适合中国动漫发展的产业链,发展衍生产品

(二)谋求合并, 形成规模经济, 并进一步形成范围经济

(三)培养和引进动漫专业人才

(四)扩大对外开放,创造良好贸易环境

(五)结合中国特色,提高动漫的原创性

(六)提高对知识产权的保护力度

(七)开展国际合作,拓展营销渠道

(八)建立动漫产品出口管理体系

结束语

研究方法:

本人将采用网络调查、抽样调查、文献检索等方法来进行论文研究。

研究手段:

本人通过参阅各种国内外动漫产业发展现状,存在的问题,出口竞争力等方面的相关文献资料,总结以上资料的基础上,通过自己观看国内外动画片,漫画以及相关的动漫衍生品,通过自身体会来比较国内和国外动漫的不同,并通过网上查找相关的数据,为论文提供最实际可靠的数据材料。

技术路线:

参考文献

[1] 袁涌波.杭州动漫产业发展对策研究[J].当代社科视野,2008.09.

[2] 沈玉燕,钱言.杭州创意产业提升商业模式竞争力的研究[J].价值工程,2010.18.

[3] 王勇.杭州动漫产业与城市旅游互动关系的思考[J].改革与开放,2010.17.

[4] 魏婷.如何“走出去”——中国动漫企业的应对之策[J].经济问题探索,2010.03.

[5] 冯元章.构建与国际接轨的动漫产业经济桥梁[J].中国市场,2010.21.

[6] 徐同林.发展浙江动漫产业的对策与思考[J].中等职业教育,2009.22.

[7] 丁培卫.中国民族动漫产业的价值链构建及品牌塑造[J].山东社会科学,2010.02.

[8] 孙聆轩,李勇.提升我国动漫产品出口竞争力对策探讨[J].商业文化(学术版),2010.08.

[9] 司思.我国动漫产品出口存在问题分析及对策研究[J].石家庄学院学报,2010.02.

[10] 金雪涛,张东胜,檀倩.我国动漫产业发展的制约因素与对策[J].商业时代,2009. 01.

[11] 李娟.中国动漫产业发展问题分析[J].经济论坛,2007.03.

[12] 陈义冰.动漫游戏专业教育结构现状的产业化探索[J]. 浙江传媒学院学报,2006.03.

[13] 中华人民共和国文化部.文化部关于扶持我国动漫产业发展的若干意见[Z].文市发,2008.33.

[15]韩英.陈少峰.中国动漫产业发展的对策分析[J].东岳论丛,2006.09

[16]郑兴.张坤.新形势下我国动漫产业分析[J].现代商贸工业,2010.20

[17]肖昕.我国动漫产业链存在的问题与对策[J].科学与经济,2009.04

外文毕业论文篇9

2.1 Current situation of company website translation 2

2.2 Samples of famous foreign company website 3

2.3 Features of company website translation 4

3. The skopos theory and company website translation 6

3.1 Introduction of Skopos theory 6

3.2 The wrong types of translation from the perspective of Skopos 8

   3.2.1 Functional translation errors 8

   3.2.2 Liguistic translation errors 9

   3.2.3 Cultural translation errors 10

4. Analyses of website translation of foreign trade company in Zhejiang province 13

4.1 Functional translation errors 13

   4.1.1 Problem of length 13

   4.1.2 Problem rooted from different thought pattern 15

4.2 Liguistic translation errors 16

   4.2.1 Spelling errors 16

   4.2.2 Improper use of punctuation 17

   4.2.3 Incorrect word translation 17

   4.2.4 Illogical arrangment 18

4.3 Cultural translation errors 19

5. Conclusion 20

Acknowledgements 21

References 22

1.Introduction

Thanks to the ongoing economic reform and opening-up and the irresistible trend of globalization, China’s communication with the world has been intensified in recent years. Though almost every company which deal with the foreign trade owns his English version website, the overall situation of the C-E translation of Chinese company website is far from satisfactory that leave a lot of work to do. For the present, most of the work are based on the rule of skopos theory which we will investigate later.

And with the popularity and applications of the Internet, the company website plays an increasing important role in foreign exchange, outreach, and the absorb foreign capital[2]. Although nowadays most domestic enterprises have set up their own websites and e-commerce platform, many export-oriented enterprises is established in English, the site has become a propaganda of the enterprise, an effective channel to promote company products. However, there is no difficulty in finding errors comparing the domestic foreign trade company website to the foreign company website. Some mistakes are even too much to bear. In recent years, there appears a large number of discussion on website translation, start from Skopos basis direction, and have a lot of research fruits on the problem of company website mistranslation. But for the relatively small corporate company website translation, it had not been given sufficient attention and standardized management, error-prone web site translation directly affect a company’s image.

2. Current situation and features of company website translation

In the world today, global and regional cooperation is in full swing and countries are increasingly interdependent. Company website provide a quick and convenient access to the general understanding of what a Chinese company is like, thus serving as bridges that enable business people from different countries with different cultural backgrounds to have a better understanding of each other. In fact, as a specialized and important area of translation, the translation of company profiles has its own features and particular communicative functions which deserve an in-depth and systematic study.

2.1 Current situation of company website translation

Foreign propaganda in the business text, Chinese text use more modifiers which using rhyme, parallelism, words with other parties type the text in order to increase the beauty, attract potential customers and clients. Many translators often find it difficult, even if be translated, also bite the bullet and let the readers of English-speaking find it difficult to understand. Company’s publicity text translation is accurate for the purpose of translation about business, product-related information. So prominent is the informational translation, first principle focus on the information, and others such as style, rhetoric and so on is secondary to bit. If translate directly, the text will cause a pile, information duplication, not meet the English language of expression. On the basis of Skopos principles, the translator should cut the original text appropriately in order for information receiver better understanding the text.

Different from other text types, a company profile is a special kind of text with particular purposes and functions. The translation purpose of company profiles is to enable more foreigners to know more about Chinese companies, thus achieving international recognition and establishing the credibility of the company and its products. In order to achieve these purposes and functions, more attention should be paid to target readers who have different cultural backgrounds in the company profile translation. According to skopostheorie, a translation action is determined by its Skopos and the end justifies the means. That means the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Therefore, in the C-E translation of company profiles, translators should adhere to Skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule and it is applicable for them to adopt a TT-oriented or reader-centered translation strategy.

However, many translators in this field tend to neglect the translation purpose of company profiles. As a result, linguistic and cultural problems still exist and obstruct the achievement of the Skopos of company profiles. Enlightened by the functionalist approach, the thesis also conducts a comprehensive survey as to the readability and acceptability of the target text[6]. It is found that foreign people do not respond positively to the English translation of Chinese company profiles. These problems or errors adversely affect the quality of translation. Primarily under the guidance of the functionalist skopostheorie, the thesis puts forward a set of guiding principles for the C-E translation of company profiles, that is, idiomatic, comprehensible, and acceptable. By analyzing authentic examples, the study also justifies someappropriate strategies such as addition, abridgement and restructuring. A conclusion can be drawn that it is feasible to guide the C-E translation of company profiles in the light of the functionalist approach, particularly skopostheorie. In the translation process, the translator is expected to bear in mind the intended function of the target text and produce a version that is comprehensible and acceptable to the target reader. Due to great linguistic and cultural differences, the translation process usually involves considerable adjustments or adaptations of the source text in order to achieve the intended function of the target text.

Hopefully, the principles and strategies proposed in this study would be of some value to the C-E translation of company profiles as well as other public materials.

2.2 Samples of famous foreign website

There are a lot of famous company on the list of top 500 in the world, after searching for their company, not difficult in finding a lot of features in common about their web page design. The followings are classic samples.

Example[1]: In 1886, Coca-Cola® brought refreshment to patrons of a small Atlanta pharmacy. Now well into its second century, the Company's goal is to provide magic every time someone drinks one of its more than 400 brands. Coca-Cola has fans from Boston to Budapest to Bahrain, drinking brands such as Ambasa, Vegitabeta and Frescolita. In the remotest comers of the globe, you can still find Coca-Cola.

Coca-Cola is committed to local markets, paying attention to what people from different cultures and backgrounds like to drink, and where and how they want to drink it. With its bottling partners, the Company reaches out to the local communities it serves, believing that Coca-Cola exists to benefit and refresh everyone it touches.

(heritage.coca-cola.com/)

Example[2]: Software is a leading online portal for software products, with free downloads and expert software reviews to help you make an informed choice. We list thousands of discounted software products with prices that are almost always the lowest available in the country. We also list a huge selection of free downloads so you can try software free before you decide to buy.

The Software.com store features the the software industry’s leading publishers, including Microsoft, Intuit, Symantec, Adobe, Nuance and hundreds of others. Our software store provides users with rich resources including thousands of user reviews, articles, and product comparison charts.

    Software.com employs a team of industry experts with over 40 years of combined experience in online software distribution. Our goal is to bring you the best range of world-leading software, at the best prices, with rich reviews and product information so you can choose the software that is right for you. (software.com/about/)

 As we can see from these samples, the foreign company websites are more functional and focus more on introdu cing products, and the purpose are much stronger and prominent. This is exactly what our company website is lack of, for we always put more words in describing company history and prior tradition, but lack of products introduction and special users attraction.

2.3 Features of company website translation   

First of all, company website translation profile depends more on the skopos rules.  Different from other text types, a company website profile is a special kind of text with particular purposes and functions. The translation purpose of company website profiles is to enable more foreigners to know more about Chinese companies, thus achieving international recognition and establishing the credibility of the company and its products. In order to achieve these purposes and functions, more attention should be paid to target readers who have different cultural backgrounds in the company profile translation. According to skopostheorie, a translation action is determined by its Skopos and the end justifies the means. That means the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Therefore, in the C-E translation of company profiles, translators should adhere to Skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule and it is applicable for them to adopt a TT-oriented or reader-centered translation strategy.

Secondly, primarily under the guidance of the functionalist Skopostheorie, the thesis puts forward a set of guiding principles for the C-E translation of company profiles, that is, idiomatic, comprehensible, and acceptable. By analysis authentic examples, the study also justifies some appropriate strategies such as addition, abridgement and restructuring. A conclusion can be drawn that it is feasible to guide the C-E translation of company profiles in the light of the functionalist approach, particularly skopostheorie. In the translation process, the translator is expected to bear in mind the intended function of the target text and produce a version that is comprehensible and acceptable to the target reader. Due to great linguistic and cultural differences, the translation process usually involves considerable adjustments or adaptations of the source text in order to achieve the intended function of the target text.

Hopefully, the principles and strategies proposed in this study would be of some value to the C-E translation of company profiles as well as other publicity materials.

At last, defined as the measure of all things in translation by Reiss, the ST is regarded by Vermeer as merely an “offer of information” which can be partly or wholly transmitted for the target audience, leaving its status much lower in skopostherie than in equivalence-based theories. And it is the purpose of the translation that determines what to translate, how much to translate and what strategies to employ in specific situations. For this reason, in C-E translation of company website, any translation strategy can be adopted provided it is effective in publicizing the company in the target culture and expanding its business there. The translator needs to serve as “cultural filtering”, which means making adjustments to the structure and style of the source text by addition, deletion and rewriting. In this section, different successful translation techniques applicable to company profile translation in light of skopostheorie will be explored.

3. The Skopos theory and company website translation

 

 A company website is a particular communicative message that an organization wants to deliver to a particular audience. It is essentially “a résumé” presenting an image of a particular company, aiming to “establish the credibility with the market the company serves” . Klein also argues that a company website provides insight about a company to its customers and prospects; potential employees and partners view it to evaluate whether or not it is the kind of company they’d like to work with. Generally speaking, a well-written company website contains the company’s founders, product range or service that a company offers, major stockholders, members of the board, address, telephone and fax numbers, website, and other vital information. Some website include their history and significant achievements they have made through the years. This thesis defines a company profile in a narrow sense and refers to a company introduction since introductory remarks head all the other subdirectory items and are of the most representative characteristics. The samples employed in this thesis include brochures and materials from the Internet and cover a great variety of b usiness fields such as banks, hotels, automobiles, medicine, wine, household electrical appliances, tobacco, and sports goods.

3.1 Introduction of skopos theory

The Skopos theory is an important functionalist theory of translation that was developed in Germany in the 1970s. It reflects “a general shift from predominantly linguistic and rather formal translation theories to a more functionally and socioculturally oriented concept of translation” [8]235. It greatly widens the research field of translation and puts translation researches in the framework of cross-cultural communication, instead of the narrow framework of source and target texts or the transmission between two languages. The Skopos theory draws inspiration from communication theory, action theory, text linguistics and text theory, and also from movements in literary studies toward reception theories. It is regarded as the core of German functionalism.

Hans Vermeer who proposed the Skopos theory gives his own definition of translation from a unique perspective that translation is a “purposeful action”. In the Skopos theory, translation is basically a type of communication. In other words, translation is a type of human action. Since action is the process of acting, which means “intentionally(at will)bringing about or preventing a change in the world (in nature), and thus can be defined as an intentional change or transition from one state of affairs to another” 18. Based on this belief, Vermeer put forward his translation principles, including the Skopos rule ad the guiding principle, and the coherence and the fidelity rule as subordinate principles.

It requires that a good translation be:

[1] pragmatic, accounting for the situational conditions of communicative interaction and, accordingly, for the needs and expectations of the addressees of the target text and even making the receiver the most important yardstick of translational decisions;

[2] culture-oriented, giving consideration to the culture-specific forms of verbal and nonverbal behaviour involved in translation;

[3] consistent, able to show the translator’s decisions in any type or form of translation task and make the target text a functional one;

[4] practical, accounting all the forms of transcultural communication needed; 

[5] normative, displaying the translator’s particular purpose;

[6] comprehensive, the communicative effects of a target text being equivalent to those of the source text;

.

3.2 The wrong types of translation from the perspective of Skopos theory

During the information exchanging, Chinese companies have to provide effective company website profile linguistically and culturally acceptable to their target readers. Consequently, the English translation of Chinese company website plays a significant role in ensuring a successful communication with the outside world. Yet the overall situation of the C-E translation of Chinese company profiles is far from satisfactory. From the perspective of Skopostheorie, “if the purpose of a translation is to achieve a particular function for the target addressee, anything that obstructs the achievement of this purpose is a translation error” [9]74. Thus, to decide whether a piece of translation is a translation error or not is neither to see whether the translation is grammatically correct or not, nor to see whether the translation is loyal to the meaning of the source text. Instead, it should depend on whether the translation has achieved the intended purpose of the original work. As far as the C-E translation of company profiles is concerned, major problems and errors result from the ignorance of linguistic and cultural differences. The common errors in the C-E translation can be roughly classified into two categories: functional translation errors, linguistic tr anslation errors and cultural translation errors.

3.2.1 Functional translation errors

Functional inadequacies occur in four ways. They may be pragmatic translation errors, which are the result of “inadequate solutions to pragmatic translation problems such as lack of receiver orientation”. Secondly, they may be cultural translation errors, which are “due to an inadequate decision with regard to reproduction or adaptation of culture-specific conventions”. Thirdly, they may be linguistic translation errors, which are “caused by an inadequate translation when the focus is on language structures”. Fourthly, and finally, they may be text-specific translation errors, which are “related to a text-specific translation problem and, like the corresponding translation problems, can usually be evaluated from a functional or pragmatic point of view” 76 .

Function refers to the factors which make the text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients[11]126.

The claim that a variety of strategies, often moving away from the linguistic surface of the source text, are necessary to produce a functional target text gives a more grounded precision to the claims of Goldblatt and Raffel. Nord’s argument helps us to understand that these strategies are not to be considered shortcomings or inadequacies, reluctantly accepted as abstract “poetry” but never as “scholarship” – they are deliberate and intelligent forms of both creativity and fidelity. Indeed they are the inevitable, different paths that translators must follow if they wish to create new texts based on their appropriately functional readings of the source-text. (Scholars, to paraphrase Raffel, are then entitled to translations as much as poets – but because their needs are different, they each require a different sort of translation.) If these strategies of non-equivalence are to be considered “mistakes” at all then they are, in a paradoxical way, “deliberate mistakes”, intentionally undertaken in order to recreate the text in a way that deviates from the literal surface meaning of the source text so as to represent its other, deeper, features. Other errors, or “mistakes”, which are the result of our intentions being neither adequate nor appropriate, might be considered, in contrast, to be “foolish mistakes”, the product of ignorance but not of maliciousness. And ignorance can be overcome by “an adequate level of language and culture proficiency”.

3.2.2 Lingustic translation errors

Linguistic translation errors are at the basic level among the four types of errors mentioned above. They usually stem from an incompetent translator’s poor command of the target language. Unfamiliar with the target language norms and conventions, an unqualified translator would make all kinds of errors, which range from levis (spelling and choice of words), semantics (meaning the source text intends to convey) to syntax (grammatical sentences and structure). Hence the translated text cannot be fully understood by the foreign audience. For example,“拳头产品”has been translated literally as “fist product”. In Chinese,“拳头产品” indicates that the product sells well in the market and it is regarded as a brand name. The counterpart “fist” in English, however, just means the hand when closed tightly with the fingers bent into the palm, which cannot convey the original meaning. It would be better to be translated as “knockout product”, “hard-punch product”or“product with a competitive edge” [12].

Example[3]: 三十年纺织品和服装出口经验,质量第一,信誉第一,友情第一,重合同,守信用,始终如一。(ex.cn)

Original version:Thirty years’experience of textiles and garments export.Quality the best.Reputation and friendship the foremost. Always abide by contacts and credibility.

Revised version:The rendering in this example is a typical word-for-word one, let alone the grammatical mistake in the last sentence “Always abide by contacts and credibility”. The deliberate faithfulness of its sentence structure actually results in sen tence fragments in English, which are far from emotionally appealing to the English readers. Such redundant syntactic structure will surely confuse the target readers.

Example[4]: 集“中国驰名商标”、“中国名牌”、“国家免检产品”和“国家出口商品免验”等荣誉于一身的特步(中国)有限公司,位于福建省泉州市经济技术开发区。(xtep.com.cn/)

Original version:Xtep(China)co.,ltd.,honored with China's famous and popular brand, China's famous brand, products exempt from inspection and export products exempt from inspection; which locates in Quanzhou Economic and Technological Development zone. After correcting the grammatical errors in this version,an improved version could be:

Revised version:Xtep(China)Co., Ltd.,winning honors like “China’s famous and popular brand”, “China’s famous brand”, “inspection-exempt products” and “inspection-exempt products for export”, which is located in Quanzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone. 

3.2.3 Clutural translation errors

What does the word “culture” mean?As we have seen, culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex and all-pervasive. Though there has been a century of efforts to define culture by scholars from different points of view, an agreement has so far not been reached[13]. The definition of culture seems simple but complex in reality. It covers aspects of everyday life to cognitive and social structure. And it refers to communities that have different attitudes toward political and social issues, different cultural practices and references in their private lives, different social backgrounds, etc.

In 1871, in his classic book Primitive Culture, British anthropologist Edward Tylor first gave the definition of culture which is widely quoted :“culture...is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom and any other capacities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” [13]. This definition is far from complete and vague to some extent because it only stressed the spiritual part of culture, but has neglected its material basis without which culture is an impossibility.

Translation and culture are closely related to each other. Translation is a cross-cultural communication. Various scholars have elaborated on the relationship between culture and translation.

Toury holds that translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural conditions48.

In order to achieve the expected purpose of the C-E translation of company profiles, it is particularly important to know the role of culture in the C-E translation of company profiles. First of all, culture affects the selection of company profiles. In order to carter for the target readers, the initiators have to select materials that characterize the Chinese culture and are acceptable in the target cultural system. Secondly, culture affects the acceptability of translations in the target culture[18]. Because of the cultural differences, what is appreciated in one culture may not be acceptable in another culture differences, what is appreciated in on culture may not be acceptable in another culture. Thirdly, culture also affects the approaches to be adopted in the translation process. For different translation purposes, people may resort to different apporaches to solve cultural clashes.

Chinese and western cultures differ greatly in their historical development, geographical locations, customs, conventions, religious beliefs and aesthetics,which have a great impact on cross-cultural communication.According to Skopostheorie, a cultural translation error occurs when something in the translation doesn't conform to the norms and conventions in the target culture. Cultural transla tion mistakes or errors, though very covert, cause a lot of hideous barriers in the cross-cultural communication.

As has been mentioned above, what is appreciated in the Chinese culture may be unacceptable in the English culture due to the cultural differences. For example, we have always prided ourselves as“龙的传人”, which is literally translated as“descendants of the dragon”. However, the Chinese word“龙” in the Chinese culture is not equivalent to the “dragon” in the western culture. Though both of them are legendary animals, their images and connotations are quite different. In the Chinese culture, the image of “龙” has undergone a series of changes before it takes its present form. It has the combined features of a number of animals—a reptile-like animal with a scaled body and claws, which can not only crawl, but also swim and fly. It is the symbol of the Chinese nation and the Chinese national spirit. It represents power, supremacy and auspice. In feudal China, emperors were compared to dragons. But in the western legends, dragon is a huge lizard with wings, scales and a long snake-like tail. It can spit fire. Dragon in the western culture is the symbol of evil[19]. So if the phrase“以外贸企业为龙头” is translated into English as “with foreign trade firms as the dragon’s head”, the foreigners will feel awful when they read the translation. It will be acceptable when it is translated as“with foreign trade firms as the locomotive(or flagship)”.

Besides, English company profiles emphasize simplicity, individuality and substantiality, while Chinese ones stress elegance, uniformity, and authority. For this reason, the author of this present paper suggests that to realize intended commercial purpose, translators should avoid literally translating four-character phraseology into English because foreign consumers may show their doubts at the first sight of these patterns:“Who knows?” as shown in the following examples.

Example[5]: 该厂能生产大衣、西装、时装、衬衣、毛衣等不同类型服装用的上千个花色品种的纽扣,产品规格齐全,品种繁多,造型新颖。(lxbutton.com/)

Original version:The factory can produce thousands of type of buttons for coats, suits, fashions, shirts and sweaters. They have complete ranges of specification and various types and are novel in shape.

Revised version:The factory can produce various new types of buttons in thousands of different designs for coat, suits, fashions, shirts and sweaters.

It seems that the modifications in the second English version not only successfully achieve commercial effect but also makes the content more succinct. Hence, a translator should always bear in mind that cultural comparison is a “must” in the translation process. Without comparisons of the two cultural systems, successful translation would not be possible.

4. Analyses of website translation of foreign trade company in Zhejiang province

There are many famous foreign trade companies in Zhejiang province, almost every company owns its English version website profile which focus to attract foreign business partners around the world. But owing to the different levels of translators who work as the company website translation, there exists a big difference in the quality of website translation, some even cause serious problem which make foreign trade partner confused about the compani's business and even products' function. So it is very important for translators of company website to follow some principles while dealing with the translation work.

4.1 Functional translation errors

4.1.1 Problem of length

The main reason for the too long translation is the profile of the translation focus too much on faith, but neglect removing or simplifying the useless information for audience. In accordance with the “Skopos rule”, the purpose of translation decides the behaviour of translation work. The translators should add, adjust or predigest the original work depending on the purpose of the translation.some of the original target information is out of communicative value which will make the translation empty, trash-talking and even affecting the information transforming.

Example [6]: 进入新世纪后,娃哈哈已拥有了雄厚的产品自主研发能力和技术创新能力,在雄厚的资金保障下,通过引进国际最先进的生产设备技术,进行消化、吸收、再创新,使公司拥有强大的核心竞争能力。同时,通过自主开发营养快线等系列创新产品,广开销路,实现科学发展,行业龙头地位日益稳固。目前,娃哈哈正在不断扩大投资规模,不断自主创新,向着世界500强企业的目标阔步前进!(划线部分为错误点)(wahaha.com.cn/aboutus/history/)

    Original version: The third time milestone development: entering the new era, Wahaha cultivated the dependent R&D ability and the technology innovation ability. Secured by abundant capital, we adopted the international advanced equipment technology with absorption and d igestion, making sure that Wahaha keeps the core competitive edge. We also developed the popular products like Nutrition Express to sustain the scientific development, stabilizing our leading position. Currently, Wahaha keeps further investment and constant innovation, aiming for becoming the world Top 500 enterprises.

We can find that some information in the Chinese version is useless and redundant,“消化、吸收、再创新”,“自主研发能力和技术创新能力”they all means innovation.so we can simplify the version into:

Revised version: Entering the new era, Wahaha cultivated the ability of innovation and R&D with abundant capital, we adopted the international advanced equipment with renew ability, making Wahaha keep the core competitive edge. At the same time, we have developed the popular products like Nutrition Express to sustain the scientific development, stabilize our leading position. Currently, Whaha keeps investment and innovation for becoming the world top 500 enterprises。

Example [7]: 东方机械位于风景秀丽、物产丰富、经济发达、文化繁荣,素有江南“鱼米、皮革之乡”美称的钱塘江畔。(hua-jia .com/s1.htm)

Original version: Our factory is located in Dingqiao Town by the Qiantang River where is famed as"The Home of fish,Rice and Leather",with beautiful scenery,rich products,flourishing economy and prosperous culture.

Revised version: “...located at Dingqiao Town by the Qingtang river, our company specialized in the production of ... ”(we can just delete the underlined part)

Example [8]: 2003年初,公司为满足国内市场对专用车的需要,及时调整产品结构并成立的专用车公司,在做稳、做强客车的同时,投巨资实施专用车项目,精心打造有洛阳宇通特色的专用车产品,本着“低端切人、高端占领”的原则,经过精心筹备,四大系列产品即混凝土搅拌车系列、散装水泥车系列、加油车系列、洒水车系列一经投放市场,便以其全新的设计、优美的造型、细腻的工艺赢得了市场的青睐。(lyyt.com/t9/index.asp)

Original version: In the early of 2003, in order to meet the demands for special-purpose car in domestic market, we adjusted our product's structure and set up a new department dealing with special purpose car. While steadying and strengthening the production of passenger car, we invest large amounts of money in special-purpose car to carefully make this kind of products with vivid Luoyang Yutong characteristics. With the principle of cutting in from the low end and taking possession at the high end, our four series of products were put into market in April of 2003 after careful preparation. They are dowser series, water cart series, bulk cement vehicle series and concrete-mixing vehicle series. The products win for their new designation, exquisite molding and technique.

Revised version: In addition to its wonderful performance in the sector of passenger cars, Luoyang Yutong Automobile co., Ltd. Moved forward with an aggressive campaign to stay at the forefront of transportation. In the early of 2003, we set up a new sector to manufacture special-purpose vehicles including fuel trucks, spraying cars, bulk cement trucks and concrete-mixing trucks which are tailored to the needs of Chinese market. They gained excellent reputation for their original design and state-of-the-art technics among clients as soon as they were put into market in April of the same years.

4.1.2 Problem rooted from different thought pattern

In the functionalist perspective, the purpose of a translation is to achieve a particular function for the target address, and anything that prevents the achievement of this purpose in considered as a translation error. This means that a particular expression or utterance is not inadequate in itself; it only becomes inadequate with regard to the communicative function it was expected to achieve. Furthermore, Nord classifies the translation errors into four categories: pragmatic, cultural, linguistic and text-specific ones[9]. Study of the small corpus shows those translation errors in the translated corporate website are mainly linguistic and cultural. In the following parts, the author is to demonstrate the problems common to nearly all the sample texts, with suggested solutions thereafter.

Example [9]: 引进大量的科技管理人才,成立“真爱集团人才联谊会” 形成“重知识,重人才” 的良好气氛。(truelovegroup.com/english/about/about.asp)

Original version: To form well atmosphere “esteem acknowledge, esteem intellect”, truelove employed a mess of technology and management persons and set up “truelove group talent sociality”.

Revised version: To form well atmosphere “respect knowledge and talents”, Truelove employed talents and set up “Truelove talents Union”.

Example  [10]:

(1)医德医风

Medical ethics

(2)全体员工精诚团结,上下一心

All the staffs unite absolute sincerity

(3)上有上策,下有下策,有令不行,有禁不止。

Disobey orders and defy prohibition.

In these translations repetitions have been talked carefully.The Word “ethics” contains the meaning of both“德”and“风”. The Chinese“精诚团结”and“上下一心” which have the same meaning are translated into “unite in absolute sincerity.” As with these, the third English sentence fully renders the Chinese version whose second part means the same as the first one.

Let's quote example (2) as another example of this strategy. Taking a look at the underlined parts, we find the Chinese phrase“进入饭店” has not been translated. The English version “Hong Kong Peninsula Hotel Management Group introduced us ...” is clear and sufficient to express the meaning of “进入饭店,带来…”. If we translate it in the word-for-word way “as entered the hotel and brought...”, the TT readers in English cultures will be confused. Thus, leaving out tautological words is one of the communicative methods in translating to realize the purpose of the TT. More specifically, this translation is a compliance with coherence rule rather than the fidelity rule.

4.2 Linguistic translation errors

A linguistic translation error is at the most basic level among the types of errors mentioned above. They usually stem from an incompetent translator's poor command of the language. Unfamiliar with the language norms and conventions, an unqualified translator would make all kinds of mistakes, which range from lexis (spelling and choice of words), syntax (grammatical sentence and structure) and semantics (meaning that the source text intends to convey).

4.2.1 Spelling errors

Example [11]: 本公司始终坚持以“质量为本,科技创新,优质服务,环保产品”为发展宗旨。(chinacgic.com/company.asp)

Original version: Our company has all along been adhering to such a development philosophy: quality basis, technological innovation, high-quality service and environment-friendly products.

Revised version:our company has all along been adhering to such a developing idea: quality basis, technological innovation, high-quality service and environment-friendly products.

Example [12]:“成功电子” 以拥有您的支持而自豪,并有信心通过我们不断的努力使您以使用“成功电子” 产品而骄傲。(chinacgic.com/)

Original version: Success Electronics is proud for having your support and convinced that our constant efforts can make you proud of using our products.

Revised verion: Success Electronic is proud for having your support and it convince that our constant efforts can make you proud of using our products.

4.2.2 Improper use of punctuation

Example[13]: 公司自创办以来,不断扩大规模,更新产品的种类。欢迎各中外客商前来共创商机! (rx-china.com/)

Original version: The company spread dimensions at once. sincerely welcomes its friends to have business negotiation, cooperate with them and jointly make great achievement.

Revised version: Since the establishment of our company we have always been expanding our industrial scale and adding new ranges to our production line. Now we warmly welcome our customers, both at home and abroad, to come together and enjoy better business opportunities!

Example [14]: 本公司经营的产品广泛用于通讯设备、家用电器、仪器仪表、数码产品行业、电子玩具以及工业自动化设备等各种领域, 在电子行业有很高的声誉。(zszyss.com/)

Original version: The product of company’s operation is used in the various fields such as communication equipment, electric home appliances, instrument appearance, digital product profession, electronictoy as well as industrial automatic equipment extensively, we have very high reputation on electronic profession.

Revised version: The products we deal in are widely used in such areas as communication, household electrical appliances, instruments and meters, digital products, electric toys and industrial automatic equipment. Our company enjoys a high reputation in the line of electronic.

4.2.3 Incorrect word translation

Example [15]: 本公司近年致力弘扬、推广中华优秀传统文化和与之相结合的高新科技。2002年起被中央有关部门指定为外交部国礼系列图书国内外主要发行单位之一。(zylp.com/)

Original version: This company recent years devoted to bring honor to , to promote the China outstanding traditional culture and high speed science which unified with it. In 2002 is assigned by the central department concerned one of for country cash as a present book domestic and foreign main release units .

Revised version: We have been carrying forward and popularizing traditional Chinese culture combined with newly developed high-tech. In 2002, our company was appointed to be one of the authorized publishers of series of golden books as official gifts for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Example [16]: 百果园占地面积20 亩,花园式布局,生产车间4800m²,设有原料、粗加工、成品、包装、冷藏、锅炉等生产车间。(baiguoyuan.com.cn/)

Original version: Baiguoyuan is like a garden it cone ns an area of zomu, with 3400 sguan meters work shop, including material storage workshop , naw processing workshop, finshed produet workshop, packing workshop, cold stonage workshop and boilen workshop.

Revised version: Baiguoyuan, a well laid out garden-like enterprise, covers an area of 20 mu, and owns a production department of 4800 square meters including workshops handling materials, rough processing, finished goods, packing, refrigerating and a boiler room.

4.2.4 Illogical arrangement

Illogical arrangement is primarily coordinated at the incorrectly translation of an individual expression or sentence's elements which cause incoherent and misunderstanding.

Example [17]:(本单位)成立于1988年,是经国家建设部批准,专业从事地基与基础工程施工的壹级企业。(richelevator.com/hz/)

Original version:We are the stair enterp rise professioned on construction of groundwork and base engineering approved by national construction department founded in 1988.

Revised version: Our company, with the approval of Ministry of Construction, was established in 1988 and we are now a first grade enterprise specializing in the construction of groundwork and foundational engineering.

Example [18]: 公司非常重视对员工队伍素质的培训工作,专门成立了人力资源部,对员工进行操作技术、专业技能、安全生产、市场意识、产品质量等方面的培训。(chinacgic.com/)

Original version: The company emphasize on training for the staff, specialize to establish HR department, train manipulating technique, specialty skill, safe producing, market apperceiving, product quality and the other side training.

Revised version:We put emphasis on training our working staff and specially set up a human resources department for the purpose of guiding our staff members to master new operating techniques, professional skills, safety in production, marketing strategies and quality control.

4.3 Cultural translation errors 

When preparing an English version of the corporate profile, the Chinese companies tend to translate literally the existing Chinese language, regardless of the fact that different addressees require an adjustment of the relationship between the explicit and implicit information in the target text and that the target cultural conventions should be given priority.

Example[19]: 公司于2000年顺利通过ISO9001: 2000版国际质量体系认证,形成了一套完整的质量保障体系,2002年11月被中国轻工业质量认证中心授予 “环保陶瓷”称号。(.cn/)

Original version:the company passed ISO9001:2000 International Quality System Certification in 2000, and has established a complete quality assurance system. It was awarded as “Environmental friendly ceramics”.

  In this short paragraph, the company exhibits four honorary titles: ISO9001:2000版国际质量体系认证,“环保陶瓷” without further explaining what the awards are about, what requirements should be met to win each and how this company is qualified to receive the glories. For people who are familiar with the awarding system, this information is able to serve as a strong support for the qualification of company. However, the westerners are probably not so moved by these titles. Questions may haunt the readers, such as “what is the evaluation standard of the award?” “how often is the award granted?” “how many enterprises can get award in each season?” in other words, only when the information becomes convincing enough can the foreigners acknowledge the qualification of the company.

5.Conclusion

It should have been a progress for the development of the Chinese enterprises since the bilingual corporate websites open a new channel for them to present themselves to the world; however, in the analysis of the translated company introductions, the author observes quite a number of errors and problems prevailing the target text, which can hardly help achieve the function of the source text, only to ruin the image of the company. After all, a company with a poor English introduction can hardly convince the potential customers of the top-quality claim of the product and service therein. Delving into the translated corporate profiles, the author finds out that as far as the translation of the Chinese corporate profiles is concerned, Chinese companies still have a long way to go.

In this light, the paper analyses the language, cultural-specific terms and discourse of the translated corporate website translation, locates common errors and proposes some methods for better communication with the international audience.

However, as nearly all the cooperate profiles are translated literally in the process, even if the linguistic and cultural errors are corrected the target texts still appear awkward in the whole text and fail to become fluent English. In other words, any corrections made in the English sentences do not solve the problem and cannot ensure a functionally satisfactory reaction from the audience.

Guo Jianzhong says the translation of pragmatic texts is an art of re-expression based on writing techniques. It holds true to the company introduction, which is tattooed to translate according to the source text’s diction and structure. What the translators need to do is to adapt to or rewrite the source text before translating. Though the English may be not literally correspondent with the original source text, the meaning of the content and stylistic features retain. As a result, the communication carries out successfully and the function is fulfilled.

 

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my supervisor Yang Xue, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Zhang Lan, Zhu Ming, Wu Xiaoyun, and many others.

My greatest personal debt is to my parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

 

References

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[2] 何森梅. 从目的论中看中文企业网站的英译策略 [J].黎明职业大学学报, 2008(1).

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[4] Nord, C. Translating as a Purposeful activity [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

[5] 梁丁强. 目的论与企业简介的翻译原则及策略-以中国企业的英文简介为例 [D]. 扬州大学英语系研究生论文, 2008.

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[8] Vermeer, H. J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action [M]. New York: Gardner Press 2000: 221-232.

[9] Nord, C. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.

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[12] 张丽玲. 从目的论讨论中英广告翻译中的差异 [D]. 暨南大学硕士学位论文 2007.

[13] 王娜. 从功能翻译理论看中国企业简介的翻译 [D]. 首都师范大学硕士学位论文 2006.

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[15] Toury,G. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond [M]. Shnahgai:Shnahgai  Foreign Language  Education Press,2001.

[16] Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories [M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

[17] Mary, Snell-Hornby. Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press, 2004.

[18] 谭载喜. 新编奈达论翻译 [M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1999.

[19] 崔胜湘. 根据目的进行翻译 [D]. 国防科学技术大学 硕士学位论文, 2004.

 

诚 信 承 诺

我谨在此承诺:本人所写的毕业论文《外贸公司网站英译研究之目的论视角》均系本人独立完成,没有抄袭行为,凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料,均作了注释,若有不实,后果由本人承担。

外文毕业论文篇10

世界经济的发展,特别是发达国家的经济发展,主要依靠科技创新和技术进步。科学技术在经济发展中的地位日趋重要,随着知识经济的兴起,世界各国之间的竞争愈演愈烈,国家竞争的焦点已转向有效地占有和支配科技资源。因此,世界各国纷纷调整科技政策,将科技发展目标与经济发展目标紧密结合,强调科学技术为提高综合国力、增强竞争力、维护国家安全服务,每年投入大量资金直接资助或间接引导相关科技项目的开展。科学研究活动也从早期是一种科学家及相关学术团体的兴趣性活动,变成为由政府直接领导和支持的一项社会事业,并肩负着国家发展的战略使命。在这种情况下,对科学研究工作进行评价也不再是科学家相互之间的一种个人监督和促进行为,它已成为政府参与和支持科学技术发展的重要手段。由于科学技术本身的迅速发展和复杂度的大幅提高,科学活动的成本不断上涨。要想进行所有领域的科学研究,并保持全面的竞争优势,即使对于发达国家,其经济实力也不能承受。有鉴于此,有必要加强对科学研究活动的监督和控制,特别是对于国家投资开展的科技项目,必须在项目实施的全过程实施高质量的评估,达到确保有限科技资源用于完成最符合国家利益的科研活动的目的。

2国外科技评估活动的实践总结

2.1重视科技评估制度建设是各国政府开展科技评估活动的前提

制度化是当前国际科技评估活动的趋势之一,科技评估不同于一般的研究活动,制度建设是科技评估活动健康发展的基本保障条件。世界各国制度建设的方式各不相同,有的以法律,有的以部门法规,有的则以行业规范的形式来进行制度建设。但经过多年的评估实践和努力,都建立了适合自己国情的科技评估体系和相应的保障制度,使科技评估活动成为一项制度化、经常化的行为,成为政府管理决策过程中不可缺少的环节。

作为科技大国,美国是使科技评估活动制度化最早的国家。上世纪初,美国成立了国会服务部,它所进行的与科技有关的研究、分析和评估可以认为是科技评估制度的雏形。然而,科技评估工作在美国的大范围开展是在二战以后。1993年美国第103届国会颁布了“政府绩效与结果法案”(GPRA)。根据GPRA的规定,科技评估的概念与制度、美国国会一级的有关科技评估机构的作用、功能、权力和责任都有明确的法律条文予以确定。此外,日本的《科学技术基本法》(1995)明确了科技评估的地位,《科学技术基本计划》(1996)和《国家研究开发实施办法指南》(1997)提出了建立开放型研究评价体制的基本框架,规定日本科技评估机构不能随意设立或撤销;1985年法国政府做出规定,在没有经过评估之前,任何国家科技计划项目都不能启动。法国议会评价局、国家研究评估委员会,前者通过法律创建,后者由部长会议通过政令任命,评估委员会的任期,评估对象的确定,评估报告的公布,都有相应的法律和制度规定;韩国、澳大利亚等国也规定,凡开展科技计划评估活动,均需依据有关法律设立机构,遵照法定程序进行工作,出具评估结论和向有关单位反馈结果。

外文毕业论文篇11

然而,值得我们注意的是,在世界贸易组织刚刚启动,甚至于还没有完全进入角色之前,一种新的贸易壁垒——绿色保护主义,已经在西方发达国家渐渐兴起,并且大有“来者不善”之势。这无疑给乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判胜利结束后世界贸易组织正式诞生所带来的一线曙光又重新罩上了一层阴影,给人们增加了几分忧虑和担心。

所谓绿色保护主义是指一种以保护资源、环境和人民健康的名义,对来自于国外的进口商品加以限制的手段和措施。它属于一种新型的非关税壁垒形式,其产生和发展具有以下几方面的背景:

1、广泛的社会背景。在当今世界,保护资源、环境和人类自身的健康已成为一种世界性的发展趋势,越来越引起了各国政府和人民的高度重视。二次世界大战以后,许多国家纷纷致力于经济建设,实现了经济的腾飞,获得了国民经济的巨大增长。但与此同时,经济高速增长也导致了一系列严重的资源与环境问题,比如,酸雨现象、空气污染、温室效应,臭氧层破坏、有毒危险废物的处理等。为此,近十多年来,越来越多的国家开始制定和实施净化空气和水源,保护资源和环境以及生态平稳的计划与措施,并把它们作为实现经济发展目标的主要任务之一。有些国家和地区还响亮地喊出了食物天然化,环境绿色化,空气水源纯净化的口号,要求改善生活环境质量的呼声不断高涨。一个时期以来,在西方发达国家的各种新闻媒体中,绿色农业、绿色工业、绿色商业、绿色食品、绿色消费、绿色旅游、甚至于绿色广告、绿色会计、绿色审计等一系列时髦词藻层出不断。

1992年6月,世界183个国家和地区的代表,其中包括102个国家的元首和政府首脑,集会于巴西里约热内卢,参加在那里召开的联合国环境与发展大会(UNCED),并通过了《环境与发展宣言》、《二十一世纪议程》和《关于森林问题的原则声明》等三项文件。此次会议规模之大,取得成果之多都是史无前例的。它表明环境问题已引起全人类的共同关注。

2、深刻的政治背景。在西方工业化国家,以保护资源和环境为口号的绿色保护主义行为最初只不过是一种自发的社会现象,但60年代以后,很快就发展成为了一种运动。时至今日,许多绿色保护机构或组织已经发展成为了一股强大的政治力量,他们的言论和行动直接影响到政府的政策和有关政党及其领导人的政治地位与政治生涯。美国前任总统布什在竞选总统时,曾经在他的竞选演讲台前打出了“环境总统”的巨幅标语,引起了选民们的极大兴趣,获得了选民的有力支持。布什履行诺言,在就任总统一年后的1990年,亲自签发了《空气净化法案》,并将美国环保协会主席提升到与政府内阁部长同等的地位。在欧洲的德国、法国、挪威、瑞典等国家,那些所谓的绿色政党组织在大选中起着举足轻重的作用。挪威首相格罗·布伦德兰夫人(MrsGroBrandtland)由于主持了世界环境委员会会议并发表了《人类共同的未来》的著名讲话而赢得了国民的进一步拥戴。不难发现,在西方绿色保护主义不断谋求与政治相结合的同时,政治家们也在充分利用这一机会而寻求获取更大的政治资本。

3、复杂的谈判背景。旷日持久的关贸总协定乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判历经八年的讨价还价,最后终于在各方的共同努力之下于1993年底达成了一揽子协议,取得了空前的谈判成果。但是,令人吃惊的是,在最后签字的众多文件中,没有任何包括贸易与环境问题的专门文件。这是否意味着关贸总协定从来没有专门关注和讨论过环境与贸易问题呢?其实不然,只是因为环境保护与贸易问题是一个极为复杂且十分敏感的问题,长期以来各成员国难以就此达成一致意见而已。

其实,早在1971年,关贸总协定就已开始设立“环境措施与国际贸易小组”。但由于种种原因,该机构一直形同虚设。直到近年来,随着环保问题在国际社会的进一步升温以及联合国“环保会议”的召开,环保问题才再度成为总协定讨论的热点,总协定下属的“环境小组”又开始重新活跃起来。

在过去几年的多边贸易谈判中,发达国家依仗其强大的经济实力,蓄意提出了一些过高的环保标准,使发展中国家难以适应和承受。比较典型的一例是1990年10月,美国宣布禁止墨西哥的金枪鱼及其制品进口,其理由是金枪鱼的捕捞会损害海豚的生存。美国的这一贸易禁运措施当然引起了墨西哥的强烈不满,他们指责美国是以保护海豚为名,行歧视贸易之实,并要求关贸总协定成立专家小组进行调查和裁决。之后,在关贸总协定关心环境与贸易问题的谈判中,发达国家与发展中国家始终针锋相对,经常围绕总协定该不该制定环保国际标准,该不该实施统一的环保政策与措施等问题展开激烈的辩论,结果往往不欢而散。

在世界贸易组织建立以前的多边贸易谈判中,贸易各方未能就环境与贸易问题达成任何协议和签署专门文件,这一方面说明了发展中国家积极斗争,有力地抵制了发达国家以提出某些过高的和不切实际的环保标准和环保措施来限制发展中国家商品出口的企图。维护了自身的利益。但是,另一方面,这也为发达国家不受总协定和世贸组织的任何约束,肆意提高对来自于发展中国家商品的环保标准,阻碍它们的贸易发展提供了可乘之机。

二、绿色保护主义的主要特征

1、名义上的合理性。绿色保护主义者喊出的口号并非裸地要保护贸易,而是以保护资源、环境和人类健康为名,乍一看来,其保护的出发点具有合理性。尤其是现代社会,随着人们对生存环境和生活质量的要求越来越高,人们会很自然地关注环境问题。对于那些可能对环境和健康带来任何危害的商品和服务表现出强烈的敏感性。绿色保护主义者正是抓住了公众的共同心理,以实现贸易保护在名义上的合理性和提法上的巧妙性。

2、形式上的合法性。绿色保护主义虽然属于非关税壁垒的范畴,但其不同之处在于:绝大部分的非关税壁垒措施不是通过公开立法来加以规定和实施的,而绿色保护主义措施则是以一系列国际国内公开立法作为依据和基础。前述美国禁止墨西哥金枪鱼输入一案便是以美国国会通过的《海洋哺乳动物保护法》和《保护海豚消费者资讯法》两部法律为依据的。

目前,世界各国政府,尤其是发达工业国家正在大力推进环保立法工作,各种法律的产生已经和将为绿色保护主义的不断扩大提供合法保障。

除加速国内立法之外,目前很多发达国家正试图通过世界贸易组织下设的贸易与环境委员会积极寻求在新的多边贸易体制中签署有关环境保护与贸易的专门性法律文件,并制定出与此相关的世界贸易商品标准。假如以发达国家意志为主要内容的一系列环保方案在新的世界贸易组织中获得通过,那么绿色保护主义会更加盛行,并给发展中国家带来巨大的压力。

3、保护内容的广泛性。绿色保护主义具有广泛的保护倾象,它涉及到与资源环境保护和人类健康有关的许多种商品在生产和销售方面的规定和限制,对发展中国家发展对外经济与贸易富有极大的挑战性。首先,就受影响的产品而言,它不仅影响到与资源再生、环境保护和生态平衡有关的一系列初级产品的生产和贸易,而且对于那些需要达到一定安全标准、卫生标准、防污标准、技术标准、劳保标准的工业制成品的生产和贸易带来的压力更大。其次,由于绿色保护措施具有不确定性和可塑性,因此在具体实施和操作时,也很容易被某些发达国家用来对来自于发展中国家的产品随心所欲地加以刁难和抵制。

4、保护方式的隐蔽性。与传统的非关税壁垒措施,如进口数量与配额等相比较,绿色保护壁垒具有更大的隐蔽性。首先,它不像配额和许可证管理措施那样,明显地带有分配上的不合理性和歧视性,容易引起贸易摩擦。其次,它可以以绿色保护为掩护,把人们的视线从对贸易进行限制的实质目标转移到别处去。再次,建立在现代科学技术基础之上的各种检验标准不仅极为严格,而且繁锁复杂,往往使得出口国商人难以对付和适应。

三、绿色保护主义对我国外贸出口的主要影响

1、对出口市场的影响。从1994年我国外贸出口的主要市场来看,占据前5位的分别是香港、日本、美国、欧共体、东盟;占据前10位的除上述5位还有南韩、台湾、俄罗斯、澳大利亚、加拿大。这说明我国的出口市场主要集中在发达国家和部分新兴工业化国家和地区。它们约占我国外贸出口总额的89%。目前,在我国出口的前10位国家和地区中,以美国为首的西方发达国家,包括美国、日本、欧共体、澳大利亚、加拿大等国,均为世贸组织中“贸易与环境委员会”的重要成员或活跃分子,而且,它们的行动往往得到一些新兴工业化国家的积极响应。如果绿色保护主义在上述国家和地区不断扩张并通过世贸组织不断将其与贸易挂钩,使二者密切相联的话,那么,我国的出口市场将会面临严重困难的局面。

2、对出口增长速度的影响。1994年,我国工业制成品出口创历史最高纪录,达到1013.3亿美元,占总出口比重的83.7%,其中机电产品出口320亿美元,比上年增长40.9%,高于总出口增长速度6%。这一发展趋势表明,加快发展我国机电产品出口是今后我国扩大对外贸易,跻身世界贸易强国之列的必然选择和重要依托。

但是,我国作为一个发展中国家,扩大机电产品出口,尤其是扩大对发达国家的机电产品出口可能面临两方面的困难:一是由于我国劳动生产率水平在一个较长时期内仍然偏低,出口机电产品缺乏足够的竞争优势;二是发达国家可能制定一系列过高的工业安全标准、防污标准、技术标准等,无形中会增加我国机电产品进入这些国家的困难。因此,从长远看来,绿色保护主义措施将成为今后一个时期我国加快出口增长速度的重要障碍之一。

另外,乌拉圭回合谈判最后签署的文件不仅包括了工业品贸易,而且还将农产品贸易,纺织品和服装贸易,服务贸易,知识产权和投资等问题都纳入到了WTO体制中。由此可见,如果某些贸易大国在新的多边贸易体制中肆意推行绿色保护主义并滥用某些条款的话,我国出口产品受影响的范围将会更大,因而影响我国加速扩大出口的战略目标的实现。

3、对出口经营效益的影响。绿色保护措施的贯彻与实施必然会牵涉到对众多产品从生产到销售各个环节的监督与检测。它要求将生态学、环境科学、卫生学等学科的原理运用到工业制成品以及农产品的具体生产、加工、贮藏、运输、销售的全过程中去,从而形成一个从生产到销售的完整的无公害的管理体系。由此可见,今后的出口产品在流通过程中将不得不越来越多地接受各种检验、测试、认证和技术鉴定待繁杂手续,并且在包装装璜、标签、广告等方面作出更多更大的适应性调整。毫无疑问,这样一来出口产品的各种中间费用和附加费用将会大幅度上升。从我国目前的情况来看,出口产品成本本来就有居高不下的问题,如果出口费用再继续上涨的话,无疑将给出口成本雪上加霜,最终使得出口经营效益下降。

四、关于我国迎接绿色保护主义挑战的对策思考

首先我们应该清楚地认识到,对于国际贸易而言,绿色保护主义是一种变相的贸易保护主义倾向,是某些发达国家用来对从发展中国家进口的商品加以限制的一种手段。但是,对于保护资源、环境和人民健康而言,它又属于一种值得引起我们高度重视并逐步加以适应的必然发展趋势。因此,从整体上而言,对于绿色保护主义及其措施,我们既不能盲目地接受,也不能笼统地加以反对。我们的基本态度和基本对策应该立足于:

1、面对现实,积极斗争。应该承认,现阶段我国仍然还是一个经济比较落后的国家,因此在世界资源与环境保护方面还只能承担某种与发展中国家的能力和水平相适应的责任和义务,任何超出我国现有承受能力的苛刻要求和条件都是我们难以接受的。面对现实,我国应该从维护自身的利益出发,在对外经贸活动中,开展积极有效的斗争,并充分注意到:(1)坚持原则。坚持我国是一个发展中国家的地位,这是我国开展对外经济斗争的重要原则,也是我们同绿色保护主义开展积极有效斗争的重要依据。(2)团结斗争。绿色保护主义具有明显的国际化趋势,是发展中国家在对外贸易中面临的共同挑战。因此,我国必须与广大的发展中国家保持密切联系,尤其是在一些公开的国际活动场所,要与他们加强团结,相互支持,争取用同一个声音说话,为维护共同的利益而斗争。(3)讲究策略。我国要尽量争取早日进入有关国际环境保护与贸易组织,近期内,至少要与他们保持密切联系,以扩大我国在一些国际环保立法和贸易立法方面的影响,避免盲目性和被动性。与此同时,我们要根据我国经济发展水平不断提高的实际,适时适度地调整我们的斗争范围、重点、方式和方法,以争取主动性。

2、着眼长远,主动适应。为了人类自身的生存与发展,将资源和环境保护与贸易联系起来有它的必要性与必然性。为此,我国对外贸易发展必须从战略的高度来思考问题,真正确定起从长远着眼,主动适应的发展目标。具体说来,从现阶段开始就应该努力做好如下几方面的适应性工作:

(1)积极推行ISO9000标准,尽早与国际质量标准体系接轨。ISO9000是一套国际贸易商品质量保证体系,目前在世界各国,尤其是在发达国家已经普遍适应。积极推行这套标准,能有效地保证我国出口商品在技术、安全、卫生、环保等方面接近和达到国际标准的要求,从而减少对外贸易摩擦,促进商品出口。

外文毕业论文篇12

1. introduction

1.1 the understanding of english idioms

1.2 the sources of english idioms

1.3 the main content of the thesis

2. the categories if chinese translation of english idioms

2.1 the translation of corresponding idioms

2.1.1 word-equivalence

2.1.2 word-amplification

2.2 the translation of partial corresponding idioms

3. seven practical translating ways of english idioms

3.1

3.2

4. conclusion

4.1 restatement of the main idea

4.2 limitations of the thesis

4.3 suggestions for teaching of e-c translation

5. bibliography

[1] fu shaohua付少华.2003.习语的文化特征[j].福州大学学报(哲社版),3:25-30.

[2] he huigang何慧刚.2004.英汉习语翻译与文化交流[m].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.

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居中,四号,宋体,加粗

居中,四号,times new roman, 加粗

小四,times new roman

友情链接